History of North Cyprus: From Ancient Settlements to the TRNC

Michael Wendlandt

August 19, 2026

The history of Cyprus is a testament to its strategic location and cultural diversity. Spanning thousands of years, it highlights a rich tapestry of cultures, rulers, and significant events. This article provides a concise overview of the island’s history, covering the initial settlements, key developments during the Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages, periods of external political influences, rule under various empires, and the eventual division leading to the modern era of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC).

Earliest Periods

The earliest periods of Cypriot history are marked by notable milestones in human activity and settlement. Significant periods include the first evidence of human activity around 12000 BCE, the establishment of the first known settlement at Khirokitia around 9000 BCE, and the emergence of new habitations between 4500 and 4000 BCE.

12000 BCE: Earliest Evidence of Human Activity

Artefacts and burned animal bones discovered at Aetokremnos on the southern coast of Cyprus provide the earliest evidence of human activity on the island, dating back to approximately 12000 BCE. The nature of these findings sparks debate among historians, as it is unclear whether these artefacts signify a permanent human occupation or sporadic visits by seafaring hunter-gatherers.

9000 BCE: First Known Settlement at Khirokitia

By 9000 BCE, the first known permanent settlement appeared at Khirokitia, near the southern coast. This community housed around 2,000 inhabitants who lived in well-constructed two-story round stone houses. The presence of obsidian, a volcanic rock not native to the island, indicates early trade or contact with other cultures. However, Khirokitia and its associated smaller settlements were abandoned after a few centuries, leaving the island uninhabited for nearly 2,000 years.

4500–4000 BCE: New Habitations Emerge

The next wave of habitation began around 4500–4000 BCE. Archaeological excavations have uncovered small village sites north of Kourion at Sotira near the southern coast, and in the Kyrenia Mountains. Artefacts from these areas include ornaments made of picrolite, a variety of soapstone, and copper, suggesting a burgeoning local culture and advancements in material usage.

The Chalcolithic Period (Copper Age – 3000 – 2500 BCE)

The Chalcolithic Period, also known as the Copper Age, was a significant era in Cypriot society from 3000 to 2500 BCE. During this time, inhabitants began using copper tools, marking a major technological leap from the earlier Neolithic stone and bone tools. 

This period is characterised by finely crafted pottery and new forms of social organisation. Evidence from various archaeological sites across the island showcases early metalworking and trade influences from neighbouring cultures. These advancements set the foundation for further progress in the subsequent Bronze Age.

The Bronze Age

Significant periods during the Bronze Age in Cyprus include the developments in the Middle Bronze Age from 1900 to 1600 BCE, the transformative Late Bronze Age from 1600 to 1050 BCE, and notable events such as Thutmose III of Egypt claiming Cyprus in 1500 BCE, the beginning of Mycenaean pottery imports around 1400 BCE, Greek immigration and the formation of Greek kingdoms around 1200 BCE, and the establishment of a Phoenician colony at Citium around 800 BCE.

1900–1600 BCE: Middle Bronze Age

The Middle Bronze Age, spanning from 1900 to 1600 BCE, marked a period of significant advancements in Cypriot craftsmanship. Several styles of well-made decorative pottery from this period demonstrate advanced skills, and imports from regions like Crete, Anatolia, Syria, and Egypt indicate the beginning of external trade. These trade links likely led to the foundation of new settlements in the eastern part of the island, which became international trading centres.

1600–1050 BCE: Late Bronze Age

The Late Bronze Age, from 1600 to 1050 BCE, was one of the most formative periods in ancient Cyprus. During this era, Cyprus’s international contacts extended from the Aegean Sea to the Levant and the Nile River delta. Writing in the form of a linear script known as Cypro-Minoan was borrowed from Crete. Cypriot craftsmen were renowned for fine jewellery, ivory carving, and bronze figures. The prosperity of this period is evident in the massive city walls and houses of hewn stone at Engomi, the principal city and port west of Famagusta.

1500 BCE: Thutmose III of Egypt Claims Cyprus

Around 1500 BCE, Thutmose III of Egypt claimed Cyprus as one of his conquests. This assertion of Egyptian control further emphasises the island’s strategic importance and its integration into broader regional networks of power and trade.

1400 BCE: Mycenaean Pottery Imports Begin

By about 1400 BCE, Mycenaean pottery was being imported from mainland Greece. This indicates significant interaction between Cyprus and the Mycenaean civilization. It is possible that Mycenaean artists accompanied merchants to Cyprus, contributing to the island’s cultural and artistic development.

1200 BCE: Greek Immigration and the Formation of Greek Kingdoms

Following the collapse of Mycenaean civilization around 1200 BCE, there was evidence of Greek immigration from the Peloponnese. This migration led to the formation of Greek kingdoms covering most of the island. The Greek language began to predominate in Cyprus, laying the foundation for its future cultural landscape. These immigrants founded new cities, which became the capitals of six ancient Greek kingdoms on Cyprus: Curium (Kourion), Paphos, Marion, Soli (Soloi), Lapithos, and Salamis.

800 BCE: Phoenician Colony Founded at Citium

Around 800 BCE, a Phoenician colony was founded at Citium (modern-day Larnaca), near the southern coast. This colony, established as a dependency of the mother city Tyre, marked the beginning of significant Phoenician influence on the island, particularly in terms of trade and cultural exchange.

External Political Influences

External political influences have significantly shaped Cyprus’s history. Notable events include Assyrian domination in 709 BCE, a period of independence beginning in 663 BCE, the recognition of Egyptian overlordship in 569 BCE, integration into the Persian Empire in 525 BCE, and the Cypriot naval contribution to Xerxes I’s invasion of Greece in 480 BCE.

709 BCE: Assyrian Domination and Tribute

In 709 BCE, Sargon II of Assyria erected a stela at Citium, recording that seven Cypriot kings paid him homage. Subsequent Assyrian documents mention 11 tributary kingdoms, including Citium, Kyrenia, Tamassos, and Idalium. This subordination to Assyria, though probably nominal, marked the beginning of Assyrian influence over Cyprus.

663 BCE: Period of Independence

Cyprus enjoyed a period of complete independence and massive development starting around 663 BCE after the Assyrian empire weakened. This era saw the flourishing of epic poetry and the creation of notable artefacts such as bronze, iron, delicate jewellery, and ivory work, including the ivory throne and bedstead excavated from a royal tomb at Salamis dating from about 700 BCE.

569 BCE: Cypriot Kingdoms Recognize Egyptian Overlordship

Around 569 BCE, the Cypriot kingdoms recognized the pharaoh Ahmose II of Egypt as their overlord. Although direct Egyptian influence was not always apparent, many limestone sculptures reproduced Egyptian conventions in dress, and some statues were directly inspired by Egyptian models. This period saw a blend of local and Egyptian artistic influences.

525 BCE: Integration into the Persian Empire

In 525 BCE, the Cypriot kings transferred their allegiance to the Achaemenid (Persian) conquerors of Egypt. Cyprus retained its independence until the accession of Darius I in 522 BCE, after which it was incorporated into the fifth satrapy of the Persian Empire. When the Ionians revolted in 499 BCE, all the kingdoms of Cyprus except Amathus joined them. The revolt was suppressed, culminating in sieges of Paphos and Soli.

480 BCE: Cypriot Naval Contribution to Xerxes I’s Invasion of Greece

During Xerxes I’s invasion of Greece in 480 BCE, the Cypriot kings, like the Ionians, contributed naval contingents to his forces. Cyprus remained under Persian rule during the 5th century BCE despite a major Athenian expedition around 450 BCE, marking a period of continued Persian influence over the island.

Hellenistic and Roman Rule

Hellenistic and Roman rule in Cyprus saw significant political and cultural changes. The island’s allegiance shifted to Alexander the Great in 333 BCE, followed by integration into the Ptolemaic Kingdom after his death in 323 BCE. Cyprus became a Roman province in 58 BCE, experiencing relative peace and development under Roman administration. The introduction of Christianity around 45 CE by the Apostle Paul and Barnabas marked a major religious transformation, influencing the island’s cultural and social landscape.

333 BCE: Cyprus Assists Alexander the Great

After the victory of Alexander the Great over the last Achaemenid ruler, Darius III, at Issus in 333 BCE, the Cypriot kings rallied to Alexander and assisted him at the siege of Tyre. This marked the beginning of Hellenistic influence on Cyprus, with the island’s rulers showing allegiance to Alexander’s expanding empire.

323 BCE: Cyprus Under Ptolemaic Rule

Following Alexander’s death in 323 BCE, his successors fought for control over Cyprus. The eventual victor was Ptolemy I of Egypt, who suppressed the Cypriot kingdoms and made the island a province of his Egyptian kingdom. He forced the last king of Salamis, Nicocreon, to commit suicide in 310 BCE, along with his entire family. For the next two and a half centuries, Cyprus remained a Ptolemaic possession, governed by a strategus, or governor-general.

58 BCE: Cyprus Becomes a Roman Province

Cyprus was annexed by the Roman Republic in 58 BCE and, along with Cilicia on the coast of Anatolia, was made into a Roman province. One of its first proconsuls was the orator and writer Cicero. Cyprus was briefly ceded to Cleopatra VII of Egypt by Julius Caesar, and this status was confirmed by Mark Antony. However, after the victory of Caesar’s heir, Octavian (later the emperor Augustus), over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at Actium in 31 BCE, it became a Roman possession again. Cyprus was originally administered as part of the imperial province of Syria but became a separate senatorial province in 22 BCE. Its governors resumed the old republic title of proconsul, and for the next 600 years, Cyprus enjoyed relative peace, interrupted only by occasional earthquakes and epidemics.

45 CE: Introduction of Christianity

One of the most significant events during the Roman period was the introduction of Christianity to Cyprus. The Apostle Paul, accompanied by Barnabas (later St. Barnabas), a native of the Cypriot Jewish community, preached there around 45 CE and converted the proconsul, Sergius Paulus. By the time of Constantine I the Great, Christians had become numerous on the island and may have constituted a majority of the population, marking the beginning of a new religious era for Cyprus.

Byzantine Empire

The Byzantine Empire’s influence on Cyprus began in 395 CE, following the division of the Roman Empire, and it continued through significant events such as the 688 CE treaty between Justinian II and Caliph ʿAbd al-Malik. 

395 CE: Cyprus Under Byzantine Rule

Cyprus came under Byzantine rule in 395 CE after the division of the Roman Empire, remaining part of the Eastern Empire governed from Constantinople. It was included in the diocese of the Orient and administered from Antioch. The Church of Cyprus gained autocephalous status in 488 CE, becoming independent of the Patriarchate of Antioch, and the archbishop was granted the right to carry a sceptre instead of a crosier and sign his name in purple ink.

688 CE: Treaty Between Justinian II and Caliph ʿAbd al-Malik

In 688 CE, a significant treaty between Justinian II and Caliph ʿAbd al-Malik neutralised Cyprus, which had been subject to Arab raids. For nearly 300 years, Cyprus functioned as a kind of condominium jointly governed by the Byzantine Empire and the Caliphate, despite frequent violations of the treaty by both sides. This arrangement lasted until 965 CE, when Emperor Nicephorus II Phocas regained complete control of Cyprus for the Byzantines. This period was marked by modest prosperity.

Cypriot art during the Byzantine period included notable works such as a 6th-century mosaic at Kiti, which is comparable to the art of Ravenna, Italy. Another remarkable mosaic from the same era at Lythrangomi was destroyed in 1974. Wall paintings from this period, particularly at Asinou, demonstrate close contact with Constantinople and are noteworthy as the earliest in a series of Byzantine mural paintings showing successive developments in Byzantine art.

Around 1185 CE, the Byzantine governor of Cyprus, Isaac Comnenus, rebelled and declared himself emperor. Isaac resisted attacks from Byzantine emperors Andronicus I Comnenus and Isaac II Angelus, but in 1191, after engaging in hostilities with an English Crusader fleet led by King Richard I (the Lion-Heart), he was defeated and imprisoned. The island was seized by Richard, from whom it was acquired by the Crusading order of the Knights Templar. When they were unable to pay his price, Richard took it back and sold it to Guy of Lusignan, the dispossessed king of Jerusalem.

The Lusignan Kingdom

The Lusignan Kingdom era is defined by Cyprus’s transformation into a critical Crusader stronghold and a prosperous feudal monarchy. Beginning with Richard the Lionheart’s conquest in 1191 CE and culminating in the fall of Acre in 1291 CE, this period saw significant migrations and the establishment of new settlements. 

1191 CE: Richard the Lionheart Conquers Cyprus

In 1191 CE, Richard the Lionheart captured Cyprus during the Third Crusade. This occurred when he was en route to the Holy Land. After seizing the island, Richard sold it to the Knights Templar, who then resold it to Guy of Lusignan, the dispossessed King of Jerusalem. Guy invited families that had lost their lands in Palestine to settle in Cyprus, establishing a feudal monarchy. His brother and successor, Amalric, obtained the title of king from the Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI.

1291 CE: Collapse of the Kingdom of Jerusalem

The fall of Acre in 1291 CE marked the end of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. This collapse significantly impacted Cyprus as many refugees fled to the island. The Lusignan Kingdom of Cyprus then became a vital stronghold and a base for Crusaders planning further campaigns against Muslim forces in the Levant. Over the next century, Cyprus gained a reputation in Europe for its immense riches, particularly among its nobles and Famagustan merchants. The wealth of Famagusta derived from its position as the last entrepôt for European trade adjacent to the Levant.

Genoese and Venetian Rule

The Genoese and Venetian Rule period highlights Cyprus’s turbulent political landscape marked by foreign interventions and economic shifts. Starting with Peter I’s ambitious Crusade in 1361 CE, followed by the devastating Egyptian raid in 1426 CE, and concluding with the island’s cession to Venice in 1489 CE, this era saw significant changes in governance and external influences. 

1361 CE: Peter I Organizes a Crusade

In 1361 CE, Peter I of Cyprus, a Lusignan king, initiated a Crusade to reclaim the Holy Land from Muslim control. He devoted himself to organizing the campaign, which led to the capture of Adalia (Antalya) on the Cilician coast of Anatolia. In 1365, after gathering funds and mercenaries from Western Europe, Peter I successfully seized and sacked Alexandria in Egypt. However, he was unable to maintain his conquests, and the captured territories were soon abandoned.

1426 CE: Egypt Raids Cyprus

In 1426 CE, Cyprus faced a significant threat when an Egyptian expedition raided and overran the island. This invasion led to Cyprus paying tribute to Cairo, marking a decline in the island’s autonomy and prosperity. The Egyptian raid significantly weakened the Lusignan rule, leading to internal strife and reduced economic stability.

1489 CE: Cyprus Becomes a Venetian Possession

In 1489 CE, Cyprus transitioned from Lusignan to Venetian control. The last Lusignan monarch, Caterina Cornaro, was persuaded to cede the island to the Republic of Venice. This transfer marked the beginning of an 82-year period of Venetian rule, during which Cyprus served as a critical maritime and trading hub in the Eastern Mediterranean. The Venetians fortified the island to defend against Ottoman attacks, but Cyprus ultimately fell to the Ottomans in 1571.

Ottoman Rule

Ottoman Rule in Cyprus began with the conquest in 1570 and lasted until the late 19th century. This period was characterised by significant social and administrative changes on the island, including the suppression of the Latin church and the restoration of the Orthodox hierarchy. Taxes were initially reduced but later increased significantly, leading to widespread discontent among the population.

1570 CE: Ottoman Conquest of Cyprus

In 1570 CE, the Ottoman Empire conquered Cyprus, marking the beginning of more than three centuries of Ottoman rule. A Turkish invading force landed on the island and quickly seized Nicosia, followed by the fall of Famagusta the following year after a prolonged siege. The conquest led to significant changes in the island’s governance and social structure. The Latin church was suppressed, and the Orthodox hierarchy was restored, providing the Greek Orthodox population with greater religious freedom. 

The feudal tenure system was abolished, allowing Greek peasants to acquire inalienable and hereditary rights to land. Initially, taxes were reduced, but they were later increased significantly and arbitrarily. The Ottoman sultans considered Cyprus an unimportant province, resulting in inefficient, oppressive, and corrupt governance.

1821 CE: Execution of the Orthodox Archbishop

In 1821 CE, the Orthodox Archbishop of Cyprus was executed by the Ottoman authorities. This event was a direct consequence of the Greek War of Independence, during which the Ottomans suspected Cypriot clergy of supporting the Greek insurgents. The archbishop’s execution symbolised the oppressive nature of Ottoman rule and sparked further unrest among the Greek Cypriot population. 

The sultanate’s promises of reform in the 19th century had little impact on Cyprus due to local opposition. Turkish uprisings occurred in 1764 and 1833, highlighting the ongoing tensions and resistance against Ottoman rule. The execution of the Orthodox Archbishop marked a significant moment in the island’s history, reflecting the harsh measures taken by the Ottomans to maintain control over Cyprus.

British Rule

British Rule in Cyprus began in 1878 and lasted until 1960, profoundly impacting the island’s political and social landscape. The British administration introduced modern infrastructure, education systems, and administrative reforms. However, their rule also sowed the seeds of ethnic tensions and nationalist movements that would later shape Cyprus’s struggle for independence.

1878 CE: Cyprus Under British Administration

In 1878 CE, Cyprus came under British administration as part of an agreement with the Ottoman Empire. The Cyprus Convention allowed Britain to occupy and administer Cyprus while maintaining its nominal sovereignty under the Ottoman Empire. The British aimed to secure a strategic base in the eastern Mediterranean to protect their interests in the region. This arrangement marked the beginning of significant changes on the island, including improvements in infrastructure and the introduction of British legal and administrative systems.

1914 CE: Annexation by Britain

In 1914 CE, Britain formally annexed Cyprus, ending the island’s nominal link to the Ottoman Empire. The annexation occurred during World War I when the Ottoman Empire sided with the Central Powers against Britain and its allies. This move was later recognized by Turkey under the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923. The annexation solidified British control over Cyprus and set the stage for its future status as a British Crown Colony.

1925 CE: Declared a Crown Colony

In 1925 CE, Cyprus was declared a Crown Colony, formalising British rule over the island. This change in status meant that Cyprus was directly governed by the British government, with a colonial administration overseeing its affairs. While the British introduced modern infrastructure and educational reforms, their rule also intensified nationalist sentiments among the Greek Cypriot population, who aspired for enosis (union with Greece). This period saw increased political activism and the rise of nationalist movements seeking self-determination.

1955 CE: EOKA Begins Campaign for Enosis

In 1955 CE, the National Organization of Cypriot Struggle (EOKA) launched a campaign for enosis, aiming to end British rule and unite Cyprus with Greece. Led by Lieutenant Colonel Georgios Grivas, EOKA conducted guerrilla warfare against British authorities and targeted both Greek Cypriot and British opponents of enosis. The campaign marked a significant escalation in the struggle for independence, leading to increased violence and political unrest on the island. This period of conflict eventually led to negotiations and the establishment of the Republic of Cyprus in 1960.

Greek and Turkish Division

The division of Cyprus into Greek and Turkish sectors resulted from a series of conflicts and political events that created deep-seated animosities and led to the establishment of separate administrations. This division has persisted, shaping the island’s political landscape and the lives of its inhabitants.

Greek Cypriot Atrocities Against Turkish Cypriot People (1963-1974)

Between 1963 and 1974, Greek Cypriot forces committed significant atrocities against Turkish Cypriot people. Following the establishment of the Republic of Cyprus in 1960, Greek Cypriots continued to pursue enosis (union with Greece), leading to tensions with Turkish Cypriots who sought equality and self-determination. The proposed amendments to the constitution by the Greek Cypriots aimed at reducing Turkish Cypriots’ status to a minority, sparking violent reactions.

In December 1963, the “Akritas Plan,” a Greek Cypriot strategy to annihilate the Turkish Cypriot population and achieve enosis, was put into action. This resulted in widespread violence, massacres, and forced displacement of Turkish Cypriots, who were confined to enclaves for over a decade. Many Turkish Cypriots were killed, maimed, or abducted, and numerous villages were destroyed. The situation led to the establishment of the Green Line and the deployment of the United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP) in 1964.

Greek Military Coup D’etat and Türkiye’s Response (15-20 July 1974)

On July 15, 1974, the Greek military junta orchestrated a coup d’état in Cyprus to achieve immediate enosis. This coup, backed by the Greek Cypriot terrorist organisation EOKA, aimed to overthrow the Cypriot government and annex the island to Greece. Archbishop Makarios, then president of Cyprus, described the coup as an invasion that violated the island’s independence and sovereignty.

In response to the coup and the imminent threat of further bloodshed, Türkiye intervened militarily on July 20, 1974, under Article IV of the 1960 Treaty of Guarantee. This intervention, known as “Operation Atilla,” aimed to protect the Turkish Cypriot population and prevent the annexation of Cyprus by Greece. The intervention led to the establishment of a Turkish-controlled northern part of the island and a Greek-controlled southern part.

Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (15 November 1983)

The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) was proclaimed on November 15, 1983, as a result of the division and ongoing conflict on the island. Following the 1974 intervention and the subsequent population exchange agreement, Turkish Cypriots established their own administration. The TRNC was formed in response to the lack of a unified government capable of representing both Greek and Turkish Cypriots.

Since its declaration, the TRNC has functioned with its own government, legislature, and judiciary. However, it is recognized only by Türkiye, with the rest of the international community recognizing the Republic of Cyprus as the legitimate government of the entire island. The TRNC continues to exist as a separate entity, with ongoing efforts toward reunification and resolution of the Cyprus issue.

1983–Present

Since 1983, the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus has maintained its independence, though it remains internationally unrecognised except by Türkiye. The TRNC has developed its own institutions, including a democratically elected government, legislature, and independent judiciary. Despite international isolation, the TRNC has established a stable governance structure and continues to seek greater international recognition and integration.

Efforts toward reunification have continued intermittently, with various negotiations and peace plans proposed but ultimately failing to resolve the longstanding division. Economic and social developments have progressed independently in both the TRNC and the Republic of Cyprus, with ongoing tensions and occasional diplomatic efforts to bridge the divide. The discovery of natural gas reserves in the region has added another layer of complexity to the geopolitical landscape, impacting relations between the Greek and Turkish sectors and their respective allies.

Conclusion

In this article we have traced the comprehensive history of Cyprus, from the earliest human activity around 12000 BCE to the present day. We explored initial settlements, key developments during the Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages, and the influence of external political entities such as Assyrian, Egyptian, Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman rule. 

Control shifted to the Byzantine Empire in 395 CE, followed by the Lusignan Kingdom, Genoese and Venetian rule, and Ottoman rule from 1570 CE to the late 19th century. British administration began in 1878, bringing modern infrastructure and education. 

Conflicts between 1963 and 1974 led to the division of Cyprus into Greek and Turkish sectors, and the establishment of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) in 1983. The TRNC remains internationally unrecognised except by Türkiye, with ongoing efforts toward reunification.

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